Geology

Lithosphere

Mountain formation

Geomorphology

Erosion

Tectonic uplift

Bedrock

Paleontology

Earth science

Crust

Tectonics

Mantle (geology)

Geophysics

Nature

It is widely recognized that collisional mountain belt topography is generated by crustal thickening and lowered by river bedrock erosion, linking climate and tectonics1–4. However, whether surface processes or lithospheric strength control mountain belt height, shape and longevity remains uncertain. Additionally, how to reconcile high erosion rates in some active orogens with long-term survival of mountain belts for hundreds of millions of years remains enigmatic. Here we investigate mountain belt growth and decay using a new coupled surface process5,6 and mantle-scale tectonic model7. End-member models and the new non-dimensional Beaumont number, Bm, quantify how surface processes and tectonics control the topographic evolution of mountain belts, and enable the definition of three end-member types of growing orogens: type 1, non-steady state, strength controlled (Bm &gt; 0.5); type 2, flux steady state8, strength controlled (Bm ≈ 0.4−0.5); and type 3, flux steady state, erosion controlled (Bm &lt; 0.4). Our results indicate that tectonics dominate in Himalaya–Tibet and the Central Andes (both type 1), efficient surface processes balance high convergence rates in Taiwan (probably type 2) and surface processes dominate in the Southern Alps of New Zealand (type 3). Orogenic decay is determined by erosional efficiency and can be subdivided into two phases with variable isostatic rebound characteristics and associated timescales. The results presented here provide a unified framework explaining how surface processes and lithospheric strength control the height, shape, and longevity of mountain belts. Using the new Beaumont number presented, it is concluded that the topographic evolution of collisional mountain belts is determined by the combination of plate velocity, crustal rheology and surface process efficiency.

Topography of mountain belts controlled by rheology and surface processes