Dynamic spatial progression of isolated lithium during battery operations

The increasing demand for next-generation energy storage systems necessitates the development of high-performance lithium batteries1–3. Unfortunately, current Li anodes exhibit rapid capacity decay and a short cycle life4–6, owing to the continuous generation of solid electrolyte interface7,8 and isolated Li (i-Li)9–11. The formation of i-Li during the nonuniform dissolution of Li dendrites12 leads to a substantial capacity loss in lithium...