Diabetic nephropathy with and without retinopathy: comparison between urine and serum vascular endothelial growth factor

To evaluate vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels in serum and urine among diabetic nephropathy (DN) patients with and without diabetic retinopathy (DR). This is a cross-sectional study involving stage 3 and 4 DN patients. A fundus examination was done to determine the DR status. VEGF levels were measured using VEGF-A ELISA kits. Serum creatinine, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and urine protein creatinine index (UPCI) were analyzed per...