The application of nano-medicine to overcome the challenges related to immune checkpoint blockades in cancer immunotherapy: Recent advances and opportunities

Although immunosurveillance mechanisms are doing their best to counteract with the development of malignant cells, immune checkpoints may serve as the "Achilles' heel" that are exploited by malignant cells. Notably, a deep understanding of this fragile site of the immune system later led to the development of immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs). At the beginning of the discovery, it seemed that these agents could push the boundaries of cancer...