3D/4D-printed bending-type soft pneumatic actuators: fabrication, modelling, and control

This article reviews soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) that are manufactured entirely via additive manufacturing methods. These actuators are known as four-dimensional (4D)-printed SPAs and can generate bending motions in response to either pressurised or vacuum (negative pressure) air stimulus after fabrication. They are characterised by geometrical and material factors that determine their motion trajectory, and the force they exert on...