Minimizing the black box problem to enhance the validity of theories about instructional effects

Prior research on learning from instruction has used a three-stage model of effects. The model posits that (1) an instructional stimulus cues the learner to use particular cognitive processes to operate on content, (2) these operations are executed, and (3) the result facilitates learning. While theories focus on all three stages, experiments have provided only indirect evidence about how well each is accomplished and rarely have controlled...