Gene

Salt (chemistry)

Ecology

Amino acid

Biology

Pyrolysis

Reactive oxygen species

Membrane permeability

Trichoderma harzianum

Biochemistry

Salinity

Botany

Food science

Physical chemistry

Biochar

Salicylic acid

Organic chemistry

Superoxide dismutase

Proline

Membrane

Catalase

Abscisic acid

Agronomy

Antioxidant

Shoot

Horticulture

Biological pest control

Chemistry

Jasmonic acid

Spinach

Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science

Salinity is among the most significant threats hindering global food security. The impact of Trichoderma, biochar, and combination on Spinach plants under salt stress conditions was investigated. Our results confirmed that salt stress (75, 150 mM) negatively affected morphological and physiological parameters of Spinach plants such as shoot (26.4%, 45.9%), and root length (16.1%, 51.2%), fresh and dry weights of root and shoot, membrane stability index (9.8%, 18.5%), relative water content(4.5%, 16.8%), chlorophyll content, mineral contents, endogenous phytohormones (auxin, gibberellins, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, and salicylic acid) and total soluble protein content. However, electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species production (such as hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical), sodium, soluble sugars, proline contents, and antioxidant enzymes activities (peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase) significantly increased as a response to salt stress. The use of Trichoderma, biochar, and combination led to significant increases in all the above parameters; nevertheless, these treatments led to significant decreases in EL%, MDA, ROS, and sodium content in the stressed plants. The results proved the combination of Trichoderma and biochar is the most effective in alleviating the damaging impacts of salt on Spinach plants by increasing the up-regulation of antioxidants and decreasing membrane leakage and ROS.

Integrated usage of Trichoderma harzianum and biochar to ameliorate salt stress on spinach plants