Gene

Engineering

Aerospace engineering

Biology

Epigenetics

Environmental health

Space exploration

Computational biology

Genetics

Spaceflight

Physics

Weightlessness

Astronomy

Human spaceflight

Medicine

Human health

Cell

Research on astronaut health and model organisms have revealed six features of spaceflight biology that guide our current understanding of fundamental molecular changes that occur during space travel. The features include oxidative stress, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysregulation, epigenetic changes (including gene regulation), telomere length alterations, and microbiome shifts. Here we review the known hazards of human spaceflight, how spaceflight affects living systems through these six fundamental features, and the associated health risks of space exploration. We also discuss the essential issues related to the health and safety of astronauts involved in future missions, especially planned long-duration and Martian missions.

Fundamental Biological Features of Spaceflight: Advancing the Field to Enable Deep-Space Exploration