Pure mathematics

Moderation

Geomorphology

Computer graphics (images)

Computer science

Virtual reality

Geology

Head (geology)

Mathematics

Optical head-mounted display

Meta-analysis

Internal medicine

Artificial intelligence

Medicine

Immersion (mathematics)

Human–computer interaction

Machine learning

Multimedia

British Journal of Educational Technology

With the availability of low-cost high-quality head-mounted displays (HMDs) since 2013, there is a growing body of literature investigating the impact of immersive virtual reality (IVR) technology on education. This meta-analysis aims to synthesize the findings on the overall effects of IVR using HMDs compared to less immersive desktop virtual reality (DVR) and other traditional means of instruction. A systematic search was carried out on the literature published between 2013 and 2019. Thirty-five randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-experimental studies were identified. We conducted an analysis using the random effects model (REM) to calculate the pooled effect size. The studies were also coded to examine the moderating effects of their characteristics, such as learner stage, learning domain, learning application type, testing format, control group treatment and learning duration, on the outcome measure. The results showed that IVR using HMDs is more effective than non-immersive learning approaches with a small effect size (ES = 0.24). The key findings of the moderator analysis were that HMDs have a greater impact (a) on K-12 learners; (b) in the fields of science education and specific abilities development; (c) when offering simulation or virtual world representations; and (d) when compared with lectures or real-world practices. The meta-analysis also suggested that HMDs can improve both knowledge and skill development, and maintain the learning effect over time. Practitioner Notes What is already known about this topic Head-mounted displays (HMDs) have been widely applied in various disciplines across both K-12 and post-secondary education. HMDs have a positive impact on learning attitudes and perceptions. HMDs have produced mixed results on learning performance. What this paper adds Immersive virtual reality (IVR) using HMDs is more effective than non-immersive learning approaches with a small effect size. The critical factors of learning implementation and research design moderate the impact of HMDs on learning performance. HMDs can improve both knowledge and skill development and maintain the learning effect over time. Implications for practice and/or policy HMD-based immersive learning appears to be a better complement to non-immersive learning approaches. Theory-driven learning design should be incorporated to guide HMD-based teaching and learning practice.

Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head‐mounted displays on learning performance: A meta‐analysis