Chemokine receptor

Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy

Effector

Biology

Chemokine

CXCL11

CXCL9

CXCR3

Immunology

Inflammation

CXCL10

Cell biology

CXCL14

Cancer research

Immune system

Frontiers in Immunology

CXCR3 is a chemokine receptor with three ligands; CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11. CXCL11 binds CXCR3 with a higher affinity than the other ligands leading to receptor internalization. Long ago we reported that one of these chemokines, CXCL10, not only attracts CXCR3+ CD4+ and CD8+ effector T cells to sites of inflammation, but also direct their polarization into highly potent effector T cells. Later we showed that CXCL11 directs the linage development of T-regulatory-1 cells (Tr1). We also observed that CXCL11 and CXCL10 induce different signaling cascades via CXCR3. Collectively this suggests that CXCR3 ligands differentially regulate the biological function of T cells via biased signaling. The first part of this review focuses on the role of CXCR3 and its ligand in immunological tolerance and autoimmunity, while discussing the controversial role of CXCL10 in neuroinflammation. The second part focuses on the role of CXCL10 in cancer diseases. Along cancer evolution tumor cells evolved to express several chemokine receptors and secrete their ligands. Vast majority of these chemokines support tumor growth by different mechanisms that are discussed. We suggest that CXCL10 differs from other chemokines by its ability to restrain tumor growth and enhance anti-tumor immunity. Along with this an accumulating number of studies showed in various human cancers a clear association between poor prognosis and low expression of CXCL10 at tumor sites, and vice versa. Finally, we discuss the possibility that CXCL9 and CXCL10 may differ in their biological function via biased signaling and its possible relevance to cancer immunotherapy.

CXCR3 Ligands in Cancer and Autoimmunity, Chemoattraction of Effector T Cells, and Beyond