Physics

Dynamic Monte Carlo method

Aerospace engineering

Meteorology

Ion thruster

Direct simulation Monte Carlo

Mathematics

Mechanics

Statistics

Free molecular flow

Engineering

Plume

Spacecraft charging

Monte Carlo method

Spacecraft

Environmental science

Aerospace

Chemical and electrical thrusters are generally utilized to control the attitude and orbit of spacecraft in aerospace. When they are firing, the exhaust expands into the vacuum environment, known as the vacuum plume. The plume flow can collide with spacecraft surfaces due to sufficient expansion, exerting adverse effects on the spacecraft, such as heating load, force/torque, contamination, and sputtering. Therefore, it is vital to investigate the vacuum plume to ensure the function and safety of the spacecraft. This review introduces the ground test and numerical simulation methods of the vacuum plume for chemical and electrical thrusters. The vacuum environment, invasive, and non-invasive (optical) measurements of the ground test are concluded. Numerical simulation of plume flow and its effects is exampled. The hybrid CFD-DSMC (computational fluid dynamics and direct simulation Monte Carlo) algorithm is employed to simulate the gas plume flow spanning continuum and transitional and free molecular flow regimes for chemical thrusters. By contrast, the PIC-DSMC (particle-in-cell plus direct simulation Monte Carlo) algorithm is used for the plasma plume flow containing charged particles exhausted by electrical thrusters. Moreover, the topics of fast prediction of the vacuum plume, plume–surface interaction, and plume–Lunar/Mars regolith interaction are proposed for future research.

A Review of Research on the Vacuum Plume