Sociology

Pattern recognition (psychology)

Spike (software development)

Population

Mathematics

Doubled haploidy

Biology

Gene

Software engineering

Ploidy

Demography

Artificial intelligence

Computer science

Genetics

Convolutional neural network

The Crop Journal

Spike number (SN) per unit area is one of the major determinants of grain yield in wheat. Development of high-throughput techniques to count SN from large populations enables rapid and cost-effective selection and facilitates genetic studies. In the present study, we used a deep-learning algorithm, i.e., Faster Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (Faster R-CNN) on Red-Green-Blue (RGB) images to explore the possibility of image-based detection of SN and its application to identify the loci underlying SN. A doubled haploid population of 101 lines derived from the Yangmai 16/Zhongmai 895 cross was grown at two sites for SN phenotyping and genotyped using the high-density wheat 660K SNP array. Analysis of manual spike number (MSN) in the field, image-based spike number (ISN), and verification of spike number (VSN) by Faster R-CNN revealed significant variation (P < 0.001) among genotypes, with high heritability ranged from 0.71 to 0.96. The coefficients of determination (R2) between ISN and VSN was 0.83, which was higher than that between ISN and MSN (R2 = 0.51), and between VSN and MSN (R2 = 0.50). Results showed that VSN data can effectively predict wheat spikes with an average accuracy of 86.7% when validated using MSN data. Three QTL Qsnyz.caas-4DS, Qsnyz.caas-7DS, and QSnyz.caas-7DL were identified based on MSN, ISN and VSN data, while QSnyz.caas-7DS was detected in all the three data sets. These results indicate that using Faster R-CNN model for image-based identification of SN per unit area is a precise and rapid phenotyping method, which can be used for genetic studies of SN in wheat.

Development of image-based wheat spike counter through a Faster R-CNN algorithm and application for genetic studies