Quantum mechanics

Theoretical physics

Gravitation

Mathematical physics

Gravitational singularity

Astrophysics

LIGO

Classical mechanics

Physics

Mathematics

Astronomy

Differential geometry

Gravitational wave

Geometry

General relativity

General Relativity and Gravitation

General relativity (GR) was proven via the direct detection of gravitational waves from the mergers of the binary black holes and binary neutron stars by the advanced LIGO and advanced virgo detectors. These detections confirmed the prediction of GR and provided the first direct evidence of the existence of stellar-mass black holes (BHs). However, the occurrence of singularities at the centers of BHs suggests that GR is inapplicable because of the breakdown of the equivalence principle at the singularities. The fact that these singularities exist indicates that GR cannot be a universal theory of space–time. In the low-energy limit, the theoretical and observational challenges faced by the $$\Lambda $$ CDM model also indicate that we might have to look beyond GR as the underlying theory of gravity. Unlike GR, whose field equations contain only up to second-order derivatives, the modified theories with higher derivative Ricci/Riemann tensor gravity models include higher derivatives. Therefore, one expects significant differences between GR and modified theories. Since there are many ways of modifying GR in the strong-gravity and cosmological distances, each model has unique features. This leads to the following crucial question: Are there a set of unique signatures that distinguish GR from modified gravity (MG) theories? This review discusses three aspects of MG theories: (1) Why do we need to consider MG theories? (2) How to modify GR? and (3) What are the observational consequences? The review is written in a pedagogical style with the expectation that it will serve as a useful reference for theorists and observers and those interested in bridging the divide between theory and observations.

Modified theories of gravity: Why, how and what?