Radiology

Neurosurgery

Pathology

Neurology

Neuroradiology

Operating system

Psychiatry

Magnetic resonance imaging

Workflow

Artificial intelligence

Interventional magnetic resonance imaging

Standardization

Medical physics

Alternative medicine

Intraoperative MRI

Artifact (error)

Neuronavigation

Protocol (science)

Computer science

Medicine

Database

Neurosurgical Review

Accurate and reliable intraoperative neuronavigation is crucial for achieving maximal safe resection of brain tumors. Intraoperative MRI (iMRI) has received significant attention as the next step in improving navigation. However, the immense cost and logistical challenge of iMRI precludes implementation in most centers worldwide. In comparison, intraoperative ultrasound (ioUS) is an affordable tool, easily incorporated into existing theatre infrastructure, and operative workflow. Historically, ultrasound has been perceived as difficult to learn and standardize, with poor, artifact-prone image quality. However, ioUS has dramatically evolved over the last decade, with vast improvements in image quality and well-integrated navigation tools. Advanced techniques, such as contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), have also matured and moved from the research field into actual clinical use. In this review, we provide a comprehensive and pragmatic guide to ioUS. A suggested protocol to facilitate learning ioUS and improve standardization is provided, and an outline of common artifacts and methods to minimize them given. The review also includes an update of advanced techniques and how they can be incorporated into clinical practice.

Intraoperative ultrasound in brain tumor surgery: A review and implementation guide