inert gas

tidal volume

respiratory physiology

high altitude

Journal of Breath Research

Normal breathing for healthy humans is taken for granted; it occurs without conscious effort using ambient (1-atmosphere) pressure with 21% oxygen (O 2 ) concentration. The body automatically adjusts for stress, exercise, altitude, and mild disease by increasing the volume and frequency of breathing. Longer term adaptations for exercise and altitude include increases in red blood cell counts and higher concentrations of capillaries in muscle tissue. When more challenging external environmental conditions or pulmonary illnesses exceed the capability for these adaptations, the human system requires technology to maintain sufficient ventilation to preserve life. On the environmental side there are two conditions to be addressed: toxicity of the surrounding atmosphere and changes in external pressure and O 2 concentration. On the medical side, mechanisms for assisting breathing include O 2 supplementation at ambient pressure, positive pressure/flow without additional O 2 , or a combination of both. This overview describes the various technologies applied to maintaining a safe breathing environment. Topics for environmental intervention include filter-based and flowing air-supply masks for toxic environments (occupational and laboratory protection), and on-demand gas supply systems for firefighters, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus divers, and altitude (high performance aircraft, spacecraft) applications. The topics for medical intervention include nasal cannula, continuous positive airway pressure, and medical ventilators. The primary purpose of this article is to provide a basic understanding of normal human breathing and the adaptation of breathing in different environments using available technologies.

The physics of human breathing: flow, timing, volume, and pressure parameters for normal, on-demand, and ventilator respiration