Critical review of FDM 3D printing of PLA biocomposites filled with biomass resources, characterization, biodegradability, upcycling and opportunities for biorefineries

3D printing by fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an advanced additive manufacturing technology for making thermoplastic-based structures. Several studies have recently investigated 3D printing of polylactic acid (PLA) with biomass resources like cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and whole biomass. Such biodegradable composites are better for the environment and can be used to replace non-biodegradable composites in a variety of applications....