Gene

Amino acid

Biology

Messenger RNA

Transfer RNA

Protein biosynthesis

Open reading frame

Biochemistry

Computational biology

Translation (biology)

Genetics

Peptide sequence

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an adapter molecule that links a specific codon in mRNA with its corresponding amino acid during protein synthesis. tRNAs are enzymatically modified post-transcriptionally. A wide variety of tRNA modifications are found in the tRNA anticodon, which are crucial for precise codon recognition and reading frame maintenance, thereby ensuring accurate and efficient protein synthesis. In addition, tRNA-body regions are also frequently modified and thus stabilized in the cell. Over the past two decades, 16 novel tRNA modifications were discovered in various organisms, and the chemical space of tRNA modification continues to expand. Recent studies have revealed that tRNA modifications can be dynamically altered in response to levels of cellular metabolites and environmental stresses. Importantly, we now understand that deficiencies in tRNA modification can have pathological consequences, which are termed ‘RNA modopathies’. Dysregulation of tRNA modification is involved in mitochondrial diseases, neurological disorders and cancer. Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are heavily modified post-transcriptionally, and the number and types of modifications are continually expanding. Recent studies show that tRNA modifications can be altered in response to cellular and environmental stresses, and that deficiencies in tRNA modification can cause mitochondrial diseases, neurological disorders and cancer.

The expanding world of tRNA modifications and their disease relevance