Gene

Cell biology

Reproductive technology

Induced pluripotent stem cell

Biology

Cell therapy

Stem cell

Stem cell biology

Computational biology

Genetics

Bioinformatics

Embryo

Embryonic stem cell

Embryogenesis

Stem-cell therapy

Cell

Cell stem cell

Human pluripotent stem cells such as embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provide unprecedented opportunities for cell therapies against intractable diseases and injuries. Both ESCs and iPSCs are already being used in clinical trials. However, we continue to encounter practical issues that limit their use, including their inherent properties of tumorigenicity, immunogenicity, and heterogeneity. Here, I review two decades of research aimed at overcoming these three difficulties.

Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Cell Therapy—Promise and Challenges