Macroeconomics

Energy consumption

Quantum mechanics

Ecology

Biology

Foreign direct investment

Granger causality

Economics

Physics

Econometrics

Sustainable development

Sociology

Human capital

Natural resource

Natural capital

Consumption (sociology)

Economic growth

Natural resource economics

Ecosystem services

Causality (physics)

Ecological footprint

Ecosystem

Social science

Resources Policy

This study explores the effect of the amounts of natural resources, human capital, and foreign direct investment on the ecological footprint in the presence of energy consumption and economic growth using US data from 1970 to 2015. We use the Zivot-Andrews unit root method to check the stationary properties of data series, along with structural breaks and employ an Auto Regressive Distributive Lag (ARDL) model to estimate the short-run and long-run elasticities among the variables. Our findings suggest that economic growth and energy consumption have negative relationships with the ecological footprint. Natural resources and human capital are helpful in curtailing ecological footprint, as is foreign direct investment (FDI). The results of Granger causality show bidirectional causality between energy consumption and the ecological footprint and between economic growth and the ecological footprint, while unidirectional causality runs from natural resources to the ecological footprint and from human capital to natural resources. The US must attract more FDI and human capital from other countries to ensure that established companies and new firms can innovate swiftly in support of the quality of life and sustainable development.

The impact of natural resources, human capital, and foreign direct investment on the ecological footprint: The case of the United States