combat exposure

moral injury

refugees

posttraumatic growth

traumatic events

stress symptoms

disorder ptsd

ptsd depression

BMC Psychiatry

Research on the long-term mental health consequences of war and displacement among civilians who live in post-conflict countries is rare. The aim of this study was to examine the developmental trajectories and predictors of general psychological distress in three samples of Bosnian war survivors over an 11-year period. In 1998/99, about three years after the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a representative sample of 299 adult Sarajevo citizens was examined in three subsamples: individuals who had stayed in Sarajevo throughout the siege, individuals who had been internally displaced, and refugees who had returned. Of the 138 study participants who could be located 11 years later, 100 were re-assessed (71%) using the Brief Symptom Inventory. Over time, psychological symptoms and general psychological distress decreased in those survivors who had stayed and increased in returnees. Former displaced persons did not show any significant changes. After controlling for other factors, cumulative trauma exposure before and during the war predicted general psychological distress at baseline. Eleven years later, higher trauma exposure during and after the war, returnee status, and more current stressors were all associated with higher levels of general psychological distress. Levels of psychological symptoms remained high in three subsamples of Bosnian war survivors. The differential symptom trajectories may correspond to distinct war experiences and contemporary stressors. Still, the cumulative effect of war traumata on mental distress persisted more than a decade after war and displacement, although the influence of current stressors seemed to increase over time.

Long-term psychological distress of Bosnian war survivors: an 11-year follow-up of former displaced persons, returnees, and stayers