Agriculture

Terrace (agriculture)

Agrarian society

Ecology

Biology

Archaeology

Acoustics

Resistance (ecology)

Physics

Aesthetics

Politics

Geography

Political science

Roman Empire

Empire

Period (music)

Ecosystem

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

In southern Peru near Lake Titicaca, at the Colla hillfort town of Ayawiri, archaeological data indicate that the construction of a large terrace complex and the production of agricultural staples were managed in a decentralized manner. The layout and engineering qualities of the terraces surrounding Ayawiri reveal that the construction, maintenance, and cultivation of these systems was managed through household labor rather than a central political authority. This agrarian landscape and labor regime provided households with what I term ecological resistance—human modifications to ecosystems that provide individuals with the capacity to resist the establishment of hierarchical authority and subjugation by imperial powers. The built agricultural landscape and accompanying agrarian labor regimes made the Colla difficult to subjugate by neighboring enemies and in the 15th century, when Inka forces attempted to conquer and incorporate the Colla into their empire. The Colla were only successfully integrated into the Inka Empire after the Inka employed their own ecological tactics. This case study provides key insights into the ways that humans modify their environment to build and perpetuate ecological resistance.

Building ecological resistance: Late intermediate period farming in the south-central highland Andes (CE 1100–1450)