Marketing

Reflection (computer programming)

Engineering

Strategic management

Upper echelons

Economics

Computer science

Business

Process management

Management

Operations management

Industrial organization

Programming language

Knowledge management

Academy of Management Review

Theorists in various fields have discussed characteristics of top managers. This paper attempts to synthesize these previously fragmented literatures around a more general “upper echelons perspective.” The theory states that organizational outcomes—strategic choices and performance levels—are partially predicted by managerial background characteristics. Propositions and methodological suggestions are included.

Upper Echelons: The Organization as a Reflection of Its Top Managers