Graph

Pattern recognition (psychology)

Key (lock)

Drug-drug interaction

Mathematics

Structural engineering

Biology

Machine learning

Engineering

Mathematical analysis

Artificial intelligence

Generalization

Drug

Computer science

Theoretical computer science

Substructure

Computer security

Artificial neural network

Pharmacology

Chemical Science

Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) can trigger unexpected pharmacological effects on the body, and the causal mechanisms are often unknown. Graph neural networks (GNNs) have been developed to better understand DDIs. However, identifying key substructures that contribute most to the DDI prediction is a challenge for GNNs. In this study, we presented a substructure-aware graph neural network, a message passing neural network equipped with a novel substructure attention mechanism and a substructure-substructure interaction module (SSIM) for DDI prediction (SA-DDI). Specifically, the substructure attention was designed to capture size- and shape-adaptive substructures based on the chemical intuition that the sizes and shapes are often irregular for functional groups in molecules. DDIs are fundamentally caused by chemical substructure interactions. Thus, the SSIM was used to model the substructure-substructure interactions by highlighting important substructures while de-emphasizing the minor ones for DDI prediction. We evaluated our approach in two real-world datasets and compared the proposed method with the state-of-the-art DDI prediction models. The SA-DDI surpassed other approaches on the two datasets. Moreover, the visual interpretation results showed that the SA-DDI was sensitive to the structure information of drugs and was able to detect the key substructures for DDIs. These advantages demonstrated that the proposed method improved the generalization and interpretation capability of DDI prediction modeling.

Learning size-adaptive molecular substructures for explainable drug–drug interaction prediction by substructure-aware graph neural network