Pathology

Pinus massoniana

Kappa

Mathematics

Biology

Hyperspectral imaging

Random forest

Stage (stratigraphy)

Paleontology

Artificial intelligence

Geography

Geometry

Vegetation (pathology)

Computer science

Botany

Pinus tabulaeformis

Forestry

Environmental science

Remote sensing

Medicine

Forest Ecosystems

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is a major ecological concern in China that has caused severe damage to millions of Chinese pines (Pinus tabulaeformis). To control the spread of PWD, it is necessary to develop an effective approach to detect its presence in the early stage of infection. One potential solution is the use of Unmanned Airborne Vehicle (UAV) based hyperspectral images (HIs). UAV-based HIs have high spatial and spectral resolution and can gather data rapidly, potentially enabling the effective monitoring of large forests. Despite this, few studies examine the feasibility of HI data use in assessing the stage and severity of PWD infection in Chinese pine. To fill this gap, we used a Random Forest (RF) algorithm to estimate the stage of PWD infection of trees sampled using UAV-based HI data and ground-based data (data directly collected from trees in the field). We compared relative accuracy of each of these data collection methods. We built our RF model using vegetation indices (VIs), red edge parameters (REPs), moisture indices (MIs), and their combination. We report several key results. For ground data, the model that combined all parameters (OA: 80.17%, Kappa: 0.73) performed better than VIs (OA: 75.21%, Kappa: 0.66), REPs (OA: 79.34%, Kappa: 0.67), and MIs (OA: 74.38%, Kappa: 0.65) in predicting the PWD stage of individual pine tree infection. REPs had the highest accuracy (OA: 80.33%, Kappa: 0.58) in distinguishing trees at the early stage of PWD from healthy trees. UAV-based HI data yielded similar results: the model combined VIs, REPs and MIs (OA: 74.38%, Kappa: 0.66) exhibited the highest accuracy in estimating the PWD stage of sampled trees, and REPs performed best in distinguishing healthy trees from trees at early stage of PWD (OA: 71.67%, Kappa: 0.40). Overall, our results confirm the validity of using HI data to identify pine trees infected with PWD in its early stage, although its accuracy must be improved before widespread use is practical. We also show UAV-based data PWD classifications are less accurate but comparable to those of ground-based data. We believe that these results can be used to improve preventative measures in the control of PWD.

Early detection of pine wilt disease in Pinus tabuliformis in North China using a field portable spectrometer and UAV-based hyperspectral imagery