Effect of P21 buffer layer on interfacial bonding characteristics of high‑carbon tool steel hardfaced through directed energy deposition

The elevated hardness of high‑carbon tool steel (M2) powder makes it an effective material for hardfacing components requiring strong wear resistance. However, if the brittle M2 powder is deposited on a ductile substrate, significant stress occurs during cooling, leading to defects, such as cracks at the interface between the substrate and deposited regions. Therefore, in this study, ductile P21 powder was deposited as a buffer layer between the...