High Estrogen States in Hereditary Angioedema: a Spectrum

Sex differences have been well documented within hereditary angioedema (HAE) over the past several decades. Females often experience more frequent and more intense attacks compared to their male counterparts. Additionally, elevated estrogen levels-as seen in pregnancy and use of oral contraceptives-is a widely known trigger for angioedema attacks. In this review article, we will outline how estrogens' downstream effects increase bradykinin, a...