Long‐term exposure to cigarette smoke influences characteristics in human gingival fibroblasts

Background Periodontal disease is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by periodontopathic bacteria accumulated in the gingival sulcus and periodontal pocket. Cigarette smoking is a well‐established risk factor for periodontal disease, and periodontal tissues in smokers are chronically exposed to cigarette smoke on a long‐term basis. Objective In this study, we investigated the effects of long‐term exposure to nicotine or cigarette smoke...