A comprehensive review of standalone and hybrid forward osmosis for water treatment: Membranes and recovery strategies of draw solutions

Forward osmosis (FO) is a membrane separation technique used to recover water from feed solution (FS) across a semi-permeable membrane, using a concentrated draw solution (DS). The feed solution could be sea/brackish water, wastewater, or other contaminated water. The DS and membrane play important roles in its overall performance. Permeate in FO is not pure water but a diluted DS. So, FO requires an additional step to regenerate DS and to...