Recall

Human–computer interaction

Operating system

Mathematical economics

Mathematics education

Outcome (game theory)

Artificial intelligence

Psychology

Neuroscience

Cognition

Instructional simulation

Cognitive psychology

Virtual reality

Control (management)

Learning environment

Mathematics

Computer science

Multimedia

Cognitive load

Process (computing)

Computers & Education

Virtual reality (VR) learning environments are highly visual and need instructional aid to help the learner. Presenting too much visual information can impair selection and organization processes by overloading the learner's cognitive capacity. Signaling could support these processes by highlighting relevant information. In this study we used signals in form of textual annotations. Research on multimedia design principles provides evidence that such signals can foster learning, but we address the question whether the signaling principle is also applicable in a virtual reality learning environment. Particularly, we investigate the effects on learning by measuring different learning outcomes as well as different types of cognitive load, i.e., extraneous, and germane load in a between-subjects design. Participants (n = 107) were randomly assigned to a group with or without annotations in a VR learning environment. We assumed that learning material with integrated annotations lead to higher learning outcome, lower extraneous cognitive load (ECL), and higher germane cognitive load (GCL) than the control group. Results show that annotations improved learners' recall performance and GCL compared to a control group but had no effects on deeper levels of processing and on ECL. This indicates that annotations in VR can help learners to process the information on a recall level, but not due to a relief in ECL. When VR learning environments should support learners in recall and at the same time foster GCL, then adding annotations can be an appropriate approach.

Signaling in virtual reality influences learning outcome and cognitive load