Ketone bodies

Biochemistry

Receptor

Enzyme

Autophagy

Sirtuin 1

AMPK

Protein kinase B

Downregulation and upregulation

Biology

Gene

Endocrinology

Kinase

Apoptosis

Metabolism

NAD+ kinase

Ketogenesis

Cell biology

Protein kinase A

Signal transduction

FGF21

Internal medicine

Fibroblast growth factor

FOXO1

Sirtuin

Medicine

Circulation Heart Failure

The cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 (sodium-glucose cotransporter 2) inhibitors may be related to their ability to induce a fasting-like paradigm, which triggers the activation of nutrient deprivation pathways to promote cellular homeostasis. The most distinctive metabolic manifestations of this fasting mimicry are enhanced gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis, which are not seen with other antihyperglycemic drugs. The principal molecular stimulus to gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis is activation of SIRT1 (sirtuin-1) and its downstream mediators: PGC-1α (proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha) and FGF21 (fibroblast growth factor 21). These three nutrient deprivation sensors exert striking cardioprotective effects in a broad range of experimental models. This benefit appears to be related to their actions to alleviate oxidative stress and promote autophagy—a lysosome-dependent degradative pathway that disposes of dysfunctional organelles that are major sources of cellular injury. Nutrient deprivation sensors are suppressed in states of perceived energy surplus (ie, type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic heart failure), but SGLT2 inhibitors activate SIRT1/PGC-1α/FGF21 signaling and promote autophagy. This effect may be related to their action to trigger the perception of a system-wide decrease in environmental nutrients, but SGLT2 inhibitors may also upregulate SIRT1, PGC-1α, and FGF21 by a direct effect on the heart. Interestingly, metformin-induced stimulation of AMP-activated protein kinase (a nutrient deprivation sensor that does not promote ketogenesis) has not been shown to reduce heart failure events in clinical trials. Therefore, promotion of ketogenic nutrient deprivation signaling by SGLT2 inhibitors may explain their cardioprotective effects, even though SGLT2 is not expressed in the heart.

Cardioprotective Effects of Sirtuin-1 and Its Downstream Effectors