Statistics

Realization (probability)

Materials science

Face (sociological concept)

Telecommunications

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser

Computer science

Surface (topology)

Laser

Physics

Mathematics

Optics

Sociology

Geometry

Lidar

Optoelectronics

USable

Social science

Multimedia

Japanese Journal of Applied Physics

Forty years has passed since I conceived the idea of a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) in 1977. This review is focused on its research and development by featuring host technologies that contributed to the realization of usable devices. After numerous innovations, the VCSEL is now generating new applications such as high-speed local area networks, computer mice, parallel optical interconnects, laser printers, face recognition systems, and various optical sensors.

Forty years of vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser: Invention and innovation