Sex differences in early life programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in humans suggest increased vulnerability in females

Overexposure of the developing fetus to glucocorticoids is a key mechanism linking early development with later life disease. In humans low birthweight, a marker of an adverse in utero environment, associates with increased fasting cortisol, increased hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity and with cardiovascular risk factors, cardiovascular disease and poorer cognitive function. Animal models suggest the HPA axis of female...