Scale formation and subcooled flow boiling heat transfer of CuO–water nanofluid inside the vertical annulus

The forced convective and subcooled flow-boiling heat transfer of CuO/water nanofluid as well as fouling rate of nanofluid are experimentally quantified for different dilute concentrations of CuO nanoparticles in water over a range of mass fluxes (353 kg/m2 s < G < 1059 kg/m2 s). Stabilization of nanofluid was also carried out using pH control method and examined using time-spend experiment. In the best case of stabilization (about 216 h),...